How to deal with machine learning bias in economic history

Authors: The paper is written by Torben S. D. Johansen, Julius Koschnick, and Christian Vedel.

Download: You can access the working paper here.

Abstract: Machine learning (ML) has rapidly transformed economic history, lowering costs of digitization, data linkage, and imputation, and making information in historical text usable at scale. This paper offers a practical guide to using these tools well. However, ML tools have also created new problems. Prediction errors are often systematically correlated with covariates of interest, so even highly accurate models can distort and sometimes reverse coefficients, and standard validation cannot detect this. Given that ML tools often perform worse for historical data, this problem is especially severe for the field of economic history. We also identify a solution to this problem. We show that recent debiasing methods can correct such bias for a wide class of applications, using a small, randomly sampled set of expert-coded labels while retaining the efficiency of large-scale prediction. We organize the field with a taxonomy of three ML tasks, survey the literature along it, and indicate where debiasing applies and where validation against proxies remains the only recourse. We close with best-practice guidance on digitization, model choice, and reproducibility.

Citing

If you would like to cite our paper, please use

@article{johansen2026bias,
  title={How to deal with machine learning bias in economic history},
  author={Johansen, Torben S. D. and Koschnick, Julius and Vedel, Christian},
  journal={arXiv preprint arXiv:2606.28063},
  year={2026}
}